• consists of values between 0–255 / 0–FFF
• values are separated by full stops/colons
• it is a unique address
• can be static or dynamic
• can be public or private
• can be IPv4 / have four groups of digits
• can be IPv6 / have eight groups of digits
• in IPv6: can replace groups of zeros.

• They are small and fit in a small storage space
• They are portable hence can be carried when need to be used outside the office
• Low power consumption
• Have rechargeable batteries

• It is a utility software that places file data in adjacent sectors to free up space for more data and reduce access time for files stored

Responsibilities of the software developer is to ensure that the ergonomics focuses on making software user-friendly, reduces repetitive motions or eyestrain and enables movements of users to promote comfort and efficiency.

Software can be designed with adjustable text sizes and screen brightness settings to prevent eye strain, offering users a way to customise their visual experience for better comfort during prolonged use.

System Stability: Computers require a consistent and stable power supply to function properly. Fluctuations or interruptions in the power source can cause various issues that can disrupt the computer's operation or lead to hardware damage.

a. Data Loss: Sudden power outages or voltage fluctuations can cause the computer to shut down abruptly, resulting in data loss if unsaved work is not properly stored. This can be particularly problematic when working on critical tasks or handling important files.

b. Hardware Damage: Power surges or inconsistent power supply can damage the computer's internal components, including the motherboard, CPU, memory, and storage devices. These damages can result in system instability, reduced performance, or even complete hardware failure.

c. Operating System Corruption: Abrupt power loss or inconsistent power supply can corrupt the operating system files, leading to system crashes, error messages, and instability. This may require system repairs or reinstallation of the operating system.

d. Component Lifespan: Inconsistent power supply can put unnecessary stress on computer components, shortening their lifespan. Frequent power fluctuations or surges can cause wear and tear on various parts, reducing their efficiency and overall longevity.

• Network operating systems
• Protocols

Word wrap - Is a word processing feature in which a word that does not fit in the current line is automatically moved at the start of the next line

Justification - refers to aligning text on both left and right margins

Drop cap - Make the first character of a paragraph occupy more than one line below it

Taking a four-digit 0  binary number i.e (0000)2

In ones complement this is  1111

In twos complement this becomes 1111+1= 0000

So, It is clear that 0 and negative zero is the same in twos complement while in ones complement they are two different values

Program counter // PC
• Stores the address of the next instruction to be fetched
Memory address register // MAR
• Stores the address where data/instruction is to be read from or saved to
Memory data register // MDR
• Stores data that is about to be written to memory // Stores data that has just been read from memory
Current instruction register // CIR
• Stores the instruction that is currently being decoded/executed

1. Overheating: Smoke and dust particles can accumulate inside the computer's casing, blocking airflow and hindering the cooling mechanisms of the computer. This can lead to overheating of the internal components, such as the CPU and graphics card. Overheating can cause system instability, performance degradation, and even permanent damage to the hardware.

2. Component Malfunction: Smoke and dust particles can settle on electronic components, such as the motherboard, memory modules, and connectors. Over time, this accumulation can create a layer of debris, leading to poor electrical contact and interference with signal transmission. This can result in component malfunctions, intermittent failures, or even complete hardware failure.

3. Short Circuits: If smoke or dust particles contain conductive materials, such as metal flakes or moisture, they can create a risk of short circuits. When conductive particles come into contact with exposed circuits or connectors, they can cause a direct electrical connection between two points that are not intended to be connected. Short circuits can damage components, disrupt data transmission, and even pose a fire hazard.

4. Increased Maintenance Requirements: Smoke and dust particles can increase the frequency and complexity of computer maintenance. Accumulated dust can clog cooling fans, causing them to work less effectively or even fail. Additionally, smoke particles can leave behind sticky residues that further attract dust, making the cleaning process more challenging.

5. Reduced Performance and Reliability: As smoke and dust particles accumulate within the computer, they can restrict the movement of mechanical components, such as fans or disk drives, affecting their performance and reliability. Dust particles can also hinder the reading and writing capabilities of optical drives or cause errors in data transmission.

Sequence: Sequential execution of a program one line after another

Selection:  Involve the a decision between two or more options e.g  if...then...else

Loops/Repetitions: Used for looping i.e a line of code can be made to execute a given number times before terminating.

• file deletion
• file copying
• file renaming
• file retrieval
• file closing
• file reading

(a)State what is meant by the terms:

Parallel data transmission

• 8 bits/1 byte/multiple bits sent at a time  
• using many/multiple/8 wires/lines

Serial data transmission

• one bit sent at a time over a single wire

• it is a format style that shows the listed items of different levels rather than at one level. Each level has a different indentation and numbering style

1. Chapter 1

     1.1. Introduction

                 1.1.1.Definition of terms

• not able to directly manipulate the hardware
• may need to wait for translation before running
• the program may be less efficient.

• it has a header that contains the destination address, the packet number, and the originator’s address
• it has a payload
• it has a trailer.

1. Low level languages do not resemble natural languages they are made up entirely of bit patterns
2. Low level languages produce code that is executed faster as it is already in a format the CPU can execute / does not need to be translated.
3. High level languages are easier to understand / learn as commands are more like English / identifiers can be meaningful .
4. High level languages are easier to use leading to fewer errors.

Utility Software

Memory management

• Manage the computer’s memory;
• It can control which parts of the memory are being used by which process

Processor management

• Manage the computer’s processor(s)CPU;
• Schedules of which processes are to be executed;

Input/output management

• Manages input/output devices;
• Interacts with/manages/handles the (automatic) installation of device drivers;
•  Handles peripheral device interrupts;
• the computer can communicate with the outside world;
• Control network communication;
• Allow devices to send and receive data;

Managing storage

• Manage secondary storage devices;
• Loading data and programs into the computer’s memory;
• Storage space management (disk quotas);
• To ensure that storage space is allocated fairly and efficiently to specific tasks\users;

Managing security

•  User authentication;
• To make sure that users must prove who they are to access the system;
• Protect against malware;
• Block access to specific vulnerable operations or system areas. For example, software can only be installed with admin access;

Managing applications

• Control access to applications;
• Prevent users or processes from using unauthorised programs // allow users or
• processes to use authorised programs;
• Control application access;
• Prevent/allow an application access to data (or devices);

Phased:
Advantages:

• only a small part of the operation affected if new system fails
•  no need to pay for two sets of wages

Disadvantages:

•  time consuming (each part needs testing fully before expanding system)

Pilot:
Advantages:

• if new system fails, only that part will be affected
• possible to gradually train staff on pilot before whole system changes over

Disadvantages:

•  time consuming (waiting to see how pilot works before rolling out to rest of the organisation)

Direct:
Advantages:

•  less likely to malfunction since fully tested
• immediate benefits/less time wasted
•  reduced costs (only one system so no need to duplicate staff)

Disadvantages:

• disastrous if the new systems does fail

Parallel:
Advantages:

•  if new system goes down, there is a backup system in place
• possible to gradually train staff/staff have time to get used to the new system