i Rendile

ii Burji

iii Borana

iv Somali

v Gabra

vi Galla/Oromo

i  Songs

ii Riddles

iii Proverbs

iv Folk tale/stories

v Tongue twister

vi Myths

vii Legends

viii Poems

i  They came for trade

ii They were looking for settlement

iii They were escaping religious persecution/conflict/civil war

iv They came for adventure/exploration

v They came to spread Islam

Two commodities obtained from the Kenyan Coast during the long-distance trade

i Cloths/silk

ii Beads

iii Ironware/tools

iv Utensils /glass/porcelain bowl

v Cowrie shells

vi Spices

vii Weapons/swords/guns/daggers

 5) The monument built by the Portuguese apart from Fort Jesus

i Vasco da Gama Pillar (in Malindi)

Two National Days celebrated in Kenya

i Madaraka

ii Mashujaa

iii Jamhuri

The main reason for the formulation for the Inter-party Parliamentary Group (I.P.P.G) I 1997

i To ensure a level of playing ground for all political parties/promote free and fair elections.

Three ways in which African communities responded to the British colonization

i) They resisted

ii) They collaborated

iii) They offered mixed reaction

One arm of the National Government

i)The legislature

ii)The judiciary

iii)The executive

Two  social functions of Orkoiyot among the Nandi

i)Foretelling the future

ii)Presiding over religious ceremonies

iii)Arbitrating disputes

iv)Blessing warriors

v)Rainmakers

vi)Medicine men

11)Two ways in which the rule of law is maintained in Kenya

i)All citizens/people are treated equally before the law

ii)An accused person is assumed/treated as innocent until proved guilty/taking suspects in the court of law for trial.

ii)By ensuring the independence of the judiciary

The author  of the Sessional PAPER No -10 in 1965

i)Thomas Joseph Mboya/Tom Mboya

The education commission which  recommended the establishment of the 8-4-4 system education in Kenya

• The presidential working party on Second University in Kenya/The Mackay Commission

Two Government expenditure in Kenya

i) Capital expenditure

ii) Recurrent expenditure

15)The chief executive of the Government of Kenya

I)The county government

The  main grievance of the Ukamba  Members  Association

i)The De- stocking policy

The other pillars of Nyayoism besides peace and love

i)Unity

Give two sources of information on History and Government.

 i. Archaeology

 ii. Oral traditions

 iii. Written records

 iv. Anthropology

v. Linguistics 

vi. Paleontology

vii. Genetics/ botany/ biology/ zoology

 viii. Electronics

 ix. Geology

Any 2x1 = 2marks 

2. What does the creation theory state on the creation of man?

 i. States that man was created by God/supreme being

1x1 = 1mark 

3. The person who invented seed drill.

 i. Jethro Tull

1x1 = 1mark 

Two modern means of communication.

 i. Television

 ii. Radio

 iii. Telephone/cellphone/mobile phones

iv. Electronic mail

v. Facsimile trans receiver(fax)

 vi. Telex

 vii. Pager

viii. Internet/zoom/skype/facebook/whatsapp/telegram/instagram/twitter/social media/satellite/computers

 Any 2x1 = 2marks 

Two factors which were responsible for the emergency of the ancient town of Cairo. 

i. Religious center/religion

 ii. Presence of water from River Nile for domestic/industrial/agriculture/irrigation

 iii. Strategic location/it was along the Caravan route

 iv. Availability of water transport/River Nile

 v. Trading activities

vi. Educational centre

 vii. Cultural centre

 Any 2x1 = 2marks  Who was Omulamuzi was in the Buganda Kingdom in the 19th century.

 i. The Chief Justice 1x1=1mark 

Two systems of administration used by the European during the colonial period in Africa.

 i. Direct rule

 ii. Indirect rule

 iii. Assimilation

 iv. Association

 Any 2x1 = 2marks

Two organs of the commonwealth.

 i. Heads of state summit

 ii. Ministerial meetings

 iii. The Secretariat

Any 2x1 = 2marks 

The organ of the African Union that hears cases of human rights abuses.

 i. The court of justice

 1x1=1mark 

10. One main political parties in the U.S.A.

 i. The Democratic

 ii. The Republican

 1x1=1mark 

Two political challenges that the DRC has faced since independence.

 i. Civil war/Shaba rebellion

 ii. Secession of Katanga/Kasai

 iii. Political assassinations

 iv. Military coups/overthrow of governments

 v. Dictatorship/suppression of democracy

 vi. Existence of militia groups

 vii. Political interference by former colonial masters/domination of public service by Belgians

 viii. Refugee crises

 ix. Political and ideological differences between Kasavubu and Mobutu

 x. Interference of UNO in the affairs of DRC

 xi. Army mutiny

xii. Tribalism/ethnicity conflicts

 xiii. Banning of political parties

 Any 2x1=2marks  

The main reason for the formation of ECOWAS.

i. To promote economic integration/development among states.

 (Trade) 1x1=1mark 

Two officials who assisted Mutapa in the administration of the Shona kingdom during the colonial period.

i. Queen mother

 ii. Head drummer

 iii. 9 Principal wives

 iv. King’s sister/emperor’s sister/queen sister(Ubunga)

 v. Military commander

 vi. Head doorkeeper/gate keeper

 vii. The chief cook/head cook/chief baker/battler(Mfumbiro)

 viii. The Chancellor

 ix. Senior son-in-law (Mbokurume)

Any 2x1=2marks 

State two factors that led to the growth of London as an Urban centre.

 i. Well-developed transport network/ports/railway

 ii. Shipping activities/presence of port of London

iii. Trading activities

iv. Industrialization/textile/metal works/ship building

v. Educational activities

vi. Cultural activities

vii. Religious activities

viii. Administrative center

ix. Strategic location e.g. Themes

x. Financial activities e.g. banks

Any 2x1=2marks 

One early source of energy.

i. Wood

ii. Wind

 iii. Water

1x1=1mark

The main use of the pipeline as a means of transport.

 i. Transport of fuel/petroleum products/liquids/gas

 1x1=1 mark 

Definition of the term barter trade.

 i. It is the exchange of goods for other goods

 ii. Exchange of goods and services for other goods and services

 1x1=1mark           

SECTION B (45 MARKS) 

18. (a). Five social factors which led to Europeans scramble for colonies in Africa.

 i. Spread of Christianity by missionaries

 ii. Support by influential people in Europe e.g. David Living Stone, William Mackinon, Karl Peters, W.T. Stead

 iii. The need to settle their surplus population

 iv. Missionaries demand for protection

v. Humanitarianism in Europe/desire to abolish slave trade which was inhuman

vi. Racism/European superiority complex/civilization/paternalism

 vii. Exploration and adventure

 Any 5x1=5marks

(b). Five reasons why nationalism grew in Mozambique.

i. African resented racial segregation/discrimination which dehumanized/eroded their dignity

ii. The Portuguese security police were harsh/ruthless in their treatment of Africans 

iii. Africans were against land alienation by the Portuguese as it rendered them landless/impoverished

iv. Arbitrary replacement of African/traditional chiefs by Portuguese officials thus denying them participation in governance

 v. Imposition of taxes by Portuguese administration thereby subjecting them to economic hardships

 vi. Disrespect of the African culture by the Portuguese was resented by the Africans as the economic hardships

vii. Disrespect of the African culture by the Portuguese was resented by the Africans as the Portuguese considered it backward/they kept African women as mistresses

 viii. The Portuguese subjected Africans to forced labor which the Africans resented

 ix. The Portuguese limited Africans freedom of expression/ Strict censorship of the press

 x. Inadequate representation of Africans in parliament in Lisbon.

 xi. Inspiration from other independent countries e.g. Tanzania

xii. Africans were subjected to long walking hours with low wages

 Any 5x2=10marks      

19. a) State five characteristics of Industrial Revolution in Europe.

 i. Increased use of iron/steel in construction and machines in buildings/ factories

ii. Production of goods in large quantities

 iii. The application of scientific knowledge in production

iv. The development of trade unions

v. The rise of modern capitalism/creation of more wealth

vi. The use of machines

vii. The emergence of the factory system

viii. The development of modern/better forms of transport/railways and roads

 ix. The use of new sources of energy/electricity/steam/petroleum/coal

 x. Improved living standards of the people

xi. Development of trade

xii. Factory workers were organized in shifts

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b) Five reasons why Britain was the first country in the world to industrialize.

i. Britain enjoyed political unity/ peace/ stability/ strong leadership for a long time which favoured industrial activities.

 ii. She had massive wealth from trade/ enough capital/ external capital from colonies abroad/ America and Africa which was invested in industry.

 iii. Britain had military might particularly the navy which protected her merchants/ guarded trade routes in the sea.

 iv. Due to the Agrarian Revolution which had taken root there, there was reliable supply of raw materials required in their industries/ food for industrial workers/ raw materials from her colonies.

v. Availability of a good banking/ insurance system which provided credit facilities and security against losses/ accidents in industry/ internal capital.

vi. There were mineral resources such as coal which was a source of energy.

 vii. Availability of labour/ unskilled labour which was provided by the people who migrated to urban areas due to displacement by land enclosure system.

viii. Large population in the country provided ready market/ internal/ domestic/ local market for her products.

 ix. Britain had good transport system like roads and railway which ensured safe and timely transportation of raw materials.

x. Britain exported her products to European countries and her colonies in Africa/ external market.

 xi. Britain had a policy of free trade without customs which favored industrialization.

  xii. The existence of cottage industries which laid the foundation for industrialization.

xiii. Scientific and technological inventions like the steam engine and electricity provided more reliable source of energy.

xiv. The British government provided the necessary support/ goodwill and favourable policies for industrial growth.

xv. Existence of rich merchants who were willing to invest in industries.

xvi. Availability of skilled labour to man machines in industries.

Any 5x2=10marks  

20. a). Five economic developments which have taken place in the DRC since independence.

i. Nationalization of industries

 ii. Encouragement of foreign investments

 iii. Development of hydroelectric power

iv. Encouragement of public-private partnership

v. Development of transport infrastructure/network/ roads/ railways/ water.

vi. Exploitation of minerals

vii. Expansion/improvement of agricultural sector

viii. The development of entertainment/music industry/ development of industries e.g. mining, textile, cement.

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b) Five economic challenges faced by Tanzania since independence.

i. Natural calamities/drought which reduced agricultural production/economic growth of the country

ii. Nationalization policy adopted by President Julius Nyerere forced many foreigners to leave the country, making them lose their interest leading Tanzania to lose out on profits

iii. The adoption of socialism/Ujamaa was resisted in some areas as it did not consider differences in economic potential

iv. Shortage/ insufficient donor funds has slowed down the country’s economic programmes

 v. Poor transport infrastructure has reduced economic growth/exploitation of resources

vi. Depreciation of Tanzanian shilling has made exports less competitive in the world market/reduced foreign exchange earnings.

vii. General poverty of masses and government’s inability to solve the problems

 viii. Corruption has compromised the government development agenda

ix. Collapse of the initial East Africa Community denied the country a common market for her goods

 x. Huge external debts

xi. Fall in major export prices.

Any 5x2=10marks 

21. a). Five European powers which colonized Africa

 i. Britain/ Great Britain/ United Kingdom

 ii. France

iii. Belgium

iv. Portugal

 v. Italy

 vi. Holland/Netherlands

  vii. Spain

 viii. Germany

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b). Five results of the Mandinka resistance against French invasion in the 19th century.

i. Many people lost their lives due to conflict/war between them and the French soldiers

ii. Property like houses, food stores and livestock were destroyed due to the use of scorched earth policy by the Mandinka warriors

 iii. It sowed the seed of nationalism among the Africans who later organized movements to liberate themselves/inspired other nationalists

 iv. The Mandinka lost control over all their trading/ economic activities/ such as gold mines

 v. Their leader Samori Toure was captured and deported to Gabon where he died in 1900

vi. The Mandinka people were forced to flee/displaced from their areas thereby becoming refugees in neighboring states/kingdoms

 vii. Mandinka people experienced starvation/famine as farming activities were neglected

viii. The war created suffering/ misery among the people leading to a state of despair

 ix. Disruption of traditional institutions e.g. chiefdoms were made ineffective in discharging duties.

Any 5x2=10marks   

SECTION C (30 MARKS) 

22. a) State three functions of the legislature in India.

i. It makes laws

 ii. It approves the national budget

 iii. It links the people with government

 iv. It amends some laws

 v. It elects the president

 vi. It debates matters of national/international importance

 vii. It supervises the performance of ministers

 viii. It declares highways and waterways to be national highways and international waterways.

 ix. It can impeach the president

Any 3x1=3marks 

b). Six advantages of the federal government of the United States of America (USA).

i. It promotes unity among the different states while retaining their distinct identity

 ii. It creates a more viable economic unit where individual states can access market/trade with each other.

 iii. It safeguards rights of smaller states from domination by bigger states

  iv. It guarantees security of states as they have a joint defense force

v. It enhances political influence of individual states since they speak/take a common stand on international issues

vi. It enables the states to benefit from a common pool of resources

 vii. It enhances trade among states through the elimination of trade barriers/use of a common currency

viii. It enables states to solve common challenges such as terrorism/drug/human trafficking

Any 6x2=12marks      

23. a) Three challenges faced by the Pan African movement.

i. Disagreement among the leaders/ideological differences

 ii. Illiteracy/ignorance among some Africans

 iii. After independence, the movement was restricted to African continent/lack of support from blacks in the diaspora

iv. Negative propaganda spread by the Europeans powers

 v. Inadequate African participation in the Pan African affairs/denied travel visas by colonial governments 

vi. Hostility from European powers/ e.g. the Europeans fought the activities of the Pan Africanists e.g. imprisonment, not allowing venue in Africa

vii. Inadequate funds/lack of economic empowerment

viii. Differences/divisions between Anglophone and Franco-phone countries

Any 3x1=3marks 

b). Six achievements of the East African community, 2001.

 i. It has provided a forum where East African leaders can discuss matters affecting them harmoniously/peacefully

 ii. Tariffs for industrial goods produced in East Africa have been reduced/investment procedures have been eased thereby increasing the volume of trade

iii. The introduction of the East African passport/opening of borders has eased movements of citizens within member countries

 iv. It has facilitated the improvement and expansion of transport and communication among the member states such as low telephone calling rates

 v. Professionals/artisans and business people are able to provide services within the community

vi. The law societies in member states formed law society of East Africa which offers legal advice on matters affecting the community

 vii. It has promoted trade among member states by encouraging citizens to conduct trade in all member states

viii. There is a functional legislative/Assembly with representatives from the member states who deliberate on matters touching on the community

ix. Enhanced development of industries such as banking (KCB/ Equity)

 Any 6x2=10marks      

24. a). Three achievements of the United Nations.

 i. It has assisted in disarmament efforts

ii. It has preserved world peace/security

 iii. It has promoted/protected human rights

 iv. It has alleviated human suffering/control disease/famine

v. It has promoted democracy

 vi. It has combated terrorism

vii. It has helped resettle displaced persons/refugees

viii. It has assisted in reconstruction of shattered economies

 ix. It has arbitrated disputes among countries

x. It has promoted decolonization

xi. It has helped maintain/promote/protect cultural interaction in the world

Any 3x1=3marks 

b). Six challenges which are faced by the United Nations in its effort to maintain world peace.

i. It lacks a standing army/military as it relies on the goodwill of the member states

 ii. There is lack of objectivity in voting by some member states who vote as a block according to their interests

 iii. National interests of individual member states are given more prominence/importance than those of the United Nations

iv. Inadequate funds as some member states fail to remit their contributions on time thereby hampering its operations

 v. Meddling into affairs of former colonies among the powerful nations has continued to bring suspicion/mistrust among member states

vi. Political instability as a result of constant conflicts in many parts of the world undermines the operations of the United Nations/ civil wars/ conflicts between and within countries

 vii. Terrorism in the world has threatened efforts to attain international peace

viii. Inability to implement certain decisions/policies due to use of the veto power

ix. Ideological differences which have heightened suspicion among member states 

x. Different levels of development among members make some feel disenfranchised/denied development or opportunities/disadvantaged

18. (a). Five social factors which led to Europeans scramble for colonies in Africa.

  i. Spread of Christianity by missionaries

 ii. Support by influential people in Europe e.g. David Living Stone, William Mackinon, Karl Peters, W.T. Stead

 iii. The need to settle their surplus population

iv. Missionaries demand for protection

 v. Humanitarianism in Europe/desire to abolish slave trade which was inhuman

 vi. Racism/European superiority complex/civilization/paternalism vii. Exploration and adventure

 Any 5x1=5marks

(b). Five reasons why nationalism grew in Mozambique.

i. African resented racial segregation/discrimination which dehumanized/eroded their dignity

 ii. The Portuguese security police were harsh/ruthless in their treatment of Africans

 iii. Africans were against land alienation by the Portuguese as it rendered them landless/impoverished iv. Arbitrary replacement of African/traditional chiefs by Portuguese officials thus denying them participation in governance

 v. Imposition of taxes by Portuguese administration thereby subjecting them to economic hardships

 vi. Disrespect of the African culture by the Portuguese was resented by the Africans as the economic hardships

 vii. Disrespect of the African culture by the Portuguese was resented by the Africans as the Portuguese considered it backwards/they kept African women as mistresses

 viii. The Portuguese subjected Africans to forced labour which the Africans resented

 ix. The Portuguese limited Africans freedom of expression/ Strict censorship of the press

 x. Inadequate representation of Africans in parliament in Lisbon

. xi. Inspiration from other independent countries e.g. Tanzania

xii. Africans were subjected to long walking hours with low wages

Any 5x2=10marks      

19. a) State five characteristics of the Industrial Revolution in Europe.

 i. Increased use of iron/steel in construction and machines in buildings/ factories

 ii. Production of goods in large quantities

 iii. The application of scientific knowledge in production

 iv. The development of trade unions

 v. The rise of modern capitalism/creation of more wealth

 vi. The use of machines

 vii. The emergence of the factory system

 viii. The development of modern/better forms of transport/railways and roads

 ix. The use of new sources of energy/electricity/steam/petroleum/coal x. Improved living standards of the people

 xi. Development of trade

 xii. Factory workers were organized in shifts

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b) Five reasons why Britain was the first country in the world to industrialize.

i. Britain enjoyed political unity/ peace/ stability/ strong leadership for a long time which favoured industrial activities.

 ii. She had massive wealth from trade/ enough capital/ external capital from colonies abroad/ America and Africa which was invested in industry.

 iii. Britain had military might particularly the navy which protected her merchants/ guarded trade routes in the sea.

 iv. Due to the Agrarian Revolution which had taken root there, there was reliable supply of raw materials required in their industries/ food for industrial workers/ raw materials from her colonies.

v. Availability of a good banking/ insurance system which provided credit facilities and security against losses/ accidents in industry/ internal capital.

 vi. There were mineral resources such as coal which was a source of energy.

 vii. Availability of labour/ unskilled labour which was provided by the people who migrated to urban areas due to displacement by land enclosure system.

 viii. Large population in the country provided ready market/ internal/ domestic/ local market for her products.

ix. Britain had good transport system like roads and railway which ensured safe and timely transportation of raw materials.

 x. Britain exported her products to European countries and her colonies in Africa/ external market

. xi. Britain had a policy of free trade without customs which favored industrialization.

 xii. The existence of cottage industries which laid the foundation for industrialization.

 xiii. Scientific and technological inventions like the steam engine and electricity provided more reliable source of energy.

xiv. The British government provided the necessary support/ goodwill and favourable policies for industrial growth

. xv. Existence of rich merchants who were willing to invest in industries.

xvi. Availability of skilled labour to man machines in industries.

 Any 5x2=10marks  

20. a). Five economic developments which have taken place in the DRC since independence.

i. Nationalization of industries

 ii. Encouragement of foreign investments

iii. Development of hydroelectric power

 iv. Encouragement of public-private partnership

v. Development of transport infrastructure/network/ roads/ railways/ water.

vi. Exploitation of minerals

vii. Expansion/improvement of the agricultural sector

 viii. The development of entertainment/music industry/ development of industries e.g. mining, textile, cement.

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b) Five economic challenges faced by Tanzania since independence. 

i. Natural calamities/drought which reduced agricultural production/economic growth of the country

 ii. Nationalization policy adopted by President Julius Nyerere forced many foreigners to leave the country, making them lose their interest leading Tanzania to lose out on profits

 iii. The adoption of socialism/Ujamaa was resisted in some areas as it did not consider differences in economic potential

iv. Shortage/ insufficient donor funds has slowed down the country’s economic programmes

v. Poor transport infrastructure has reduced economic growth/exploitation of resources

vi. Depreciation of Tanzanian shilling has made exports less competitive in the world market/reduced foreign exchange earnings.

vii. General poverty of masses and government’s inability to solve the problems

viii. Corruption has compromised the government development agenda

ix. Collapse of the initial East Africa Community denied the country a common market for her goods

 x. Huge external debts

xi. Fall in major export prices.

 Any 5x2=10marks 

21. a). Five European powers which colonized Africa.

i. Britain/ Great Britain/ United Kingdom

ii. France

 iii. Belgium

iv. Portugal

v. Italy

vi. Holland/Netherlands

 vii. Spain

 viii. Germany

 Any 5x1=5marks 

b). Five results of the Mandinka resistance against the French invasion in the 19th century.

i. Many people lost their lives due to conflict/war between them and the French soldiers

 ii. Property like houses, food stores and livestock were destroyed due to the use of scorched earth policy by the Mandinka warriors

 iii. It sowed the seed of nationalism among the Africans who later organized movements to liberate themselves/inspired other nationalists

 iv. The Mandinka lost control over all their trading/ economic activities/ such as gold mines

 v. Their leader, Samori Toure was captured and deported to Gabon where he died in 1900

 vi. The Mandinka people were forced to flee/displaced from their areas thereby becoming refugees in neighbouring states/kingdoms

 vii. Mandinka people experienced starvation/famine as farming activities were neglected

viii. The war created suffering/ misery among the people leading to a state of despair

 ix. Disruption of traditional institutions e.g. chiefdoms were made ineffective in discharging duties.

Any 5x2=10marks    

22. a) State three functions of the legislature in India. 

i. It makes laws

 ii. It approves the national budget

 iii. It links the people with government

iv. It amends some laws

v. It elects the president

 vi. It debates matters of national/international importance

 vii. It supervises the performance of ministers

 viii. It declares highways and waterways to be national highways and international waterways.

 ix. It can impeach the president

 Any 3x1=3marks

b). Six advantages of the federal government of the United States of America (USA). 

i. It promotes unity among the different states while retaining their distinct identity

 ii. It creates a more viable economic unit where individual states can access market/trade with each other.

iii. It safeguards rights of smaller states from domination by bigger states

  iv. It guarantees security of states as they have a joint defense force

 v. It enhances the political influence of individual states since they speak/take a common stand on international issues

 vi. It enables the states to benefit from a common pool of resources

  vii. It enhances trade among states through the elimination of trade barriers/use of a common currency viii. It enables states to solve common challenges such as terrorism/drug/human trafficking

                Any 6x2=12marks      

Trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between people or countries.

Methods of trade
There are two main methods of trade;
1.  Barter trade
2.  Currency trade.
a)  Barter trade
This is the exchange of gods for gods. It is one of the earliest forms of trade that was even taking place during the reign of King Solomon of the Bible.Barter trade emerged from the natural needs of the people. For example, among the Kenyan pre-colonial communities such as the Maasai who kept livestock but did not have grains which the neighbouring kikuyu possessed. Barter trade sometimes even took place within the same community where some people had some special talents that others did not possess. E.g ironsmiths.A form of barter trade known as ‘silent trade’ was practiced in some areas where the two involved communities could not speak the same language. For example, it existed between Morocco and Carthage in 400 BC.Barter trade can still be witnessed in the modern society. For example, Kenya exchanges tea and coffee with petroleum, chemicals and machinery from other countries.
Barter trade however has the following disadvantages;
a)  It may involve bulky goods in the transaction.
b)  There may lack double coincidence. It is difficult always to get the goods one wants.
c)  Lack of standards of deferred payment; if a good was borrowed, it would be difficult to decide whether the same value was returned later or not.
d)  Some goods cannot be sub-divided into smaller units. If one wanted cloth equal to a half a sheep, then he could not divide the sheep into two parts.
e)  Lack of store of value for some goods which cannot be stored for a long time since they are perishable. E.g. milk, vegetables.
f)  Lack of measures of value; a specific quantity of goods cannot be measured vis-à-vis other goods.
Advantages of barter system
a)  Poor countries without adequate foreign currencies benefit from it by being able to exchange goods they have for what they do not have.
b)  It benefits where money is non-existent.
c)  It avoids wastage as demand and supply tend to equate.
d)  It promotes interaction hence good relationship, peace and stability especially among traditional African societies.
b)  Currency trade
This is a type of trade that involves the use of money.
Money is an item that is mutually recognized as a medium of exchange or a measure of value. In the pre-colonial times items like Gold dust, cloth, copper rods, and iron and cowrie shells were used as a form of currency.
Advantages of the use of money in trade
a)  Money is a medium of exchange- it is needed to obtain goods or services.
b)  Money as a measure of value enables units of goods to be bought. A specific quantity of goods can be measured Visa- Vis other goods.
c)  Money is a standard of deferred (future) payments which allows borrowing and lending to take place.
d)  It is a store of value- one is able to defer satisfaction of a want to future times or make provision for one’s want at a future date.
e)  It is a means through which immovable property can be transferred. For example when one sells a house in one city to go and dwell in another.
f)  Money as a unit of account is used as a calculating medium and assigning prices of goods and services.
g)  Money is easily divisible into smaller units. For example, if a product is valued at a lower price, the buyer only pays the agreed cost.
h)  The qualities of money and its functions overcome the difficulties of barter.
Money however becomes valuable only when those using it have confidence that it will continue to retain its value during the period it is in possession.Technology today has made the use of currency easier. There is the use of Visa Card and Mobile money services like Mpesa and Airtel Money to carry out transactions.Difference between barter trade and trade in which currency is used as a medium of exchange.
a)  In barter trade goods are exchanged for goods/in currency trade, there is use of money as a measure of value.
b)  In barter trade depends on the existence of a double coincidence of needs but in currency method one meets his needs by the use of money.
c)  Items used for barter trade are bulky (some) and inconvenient to handle -and others perishable. Money is not bulky.

Local trade
This refers to the exchange of goods between people within the same geographical area such as a village or town.
Origin of local trade
This form of trade took place between groups of people who produced different goods mainly because of varying ecological conditions. It was motivated by the following factors;
a)  Existence of surplus production e.g. where some community’s harvest was excess; they could sell the excess commodity to carter for shortages elsewhere and to avoid wastage.
b)  Differences in climate and environmental conditions which affected the type of natural resources available in various places/ not all needs of a particular community can be satisfied by the resources available hence trade. The kikuyu of Nyeri had to go to Mathira for their foodstuff requirements during drought periods.
c)  Specialization and improved technology which always creates a need to exchange skills and goods with those who do not have. E.g trade between Mathira kikuyu cultivators and the Mukurwe-ini kikuyu ironmongers and weavers. Some even exchanged skills for money.
d)  Population increase making man to begin to supplement his needs by trading with his neighbors.Sometimes, this trade extended even beyond the local community to the neighbouring community. The Abagusii, for example, acquired hides, milk, snake poison, and pottery items from their Luo Neighbours.
Some seasonal markets emerged which enabled traders to meet and exchange goods on particular days of the week.
Factors that facilitated development of local trade
a)  Availability of capital for investments in trade – to generate more wealth.
b)  Specialization and improved technology, e.g. specialization in production, in technology and in marketing. Sometimes people even exchanged their skills for money.
c)  Demand and supply; the growing demand for goods and services was met by increase in supply.
d)  Enterprise; many people began to take greater risk and invested more in trade.
e)  Peace and stability. This enabled people to interact more and hence the growth and expansion of trade.
Impact of local trade
a)  There was development of market places which specialized in certain items like pottery, iron tools and baskets. Others specialized in livestock
b)  Local trade helped to strengthen bonds between people in the same locality. It even enhanced intermarriages and other social functions.
c)  Local trade satisfied the requirements of the communities in terms of tools, foodstuff s, medicinal herbs etc.
d)  Local trade enhanced acquisition of new products that a particular community did not produce.
e)  There was an improvement of transport routes. Some markets were strategically located along transport routes.
f)  In centralized governments like Buganda, Bunyoro-Kitara, Mali, Ghana and Wanga, the local markets that developed due to the trade became important sources of revenue for the kingdoms. In Bunyoro-Kitara for example, the Omukama had officers whose duty was to collect taxes from the market places.
g)  Many people were brought together through trade. In Bunyoro–Kitara, communities like the Alur, Acholi, Langi, Basoga, Baganda, Kumani, Iteso and Banyankole interacted through trade.
NB; the greatest danger to the local traders was that they risked being attacked by hostile communities and wild animals.
Regional trade
This refers to a type of trade between two distinct geographical regions
Characteristics of regional trade
~ It Takes place within a bigger geographical area.
~ It Involves intermediaries or middlemen between producers and the buyers.
~ The trade often covers long distances to and from the market.
~ It involves people who specialize mainly in trade as their means of livelihood.
~ Larger Varieties of goods are involved.
In regional trade there existed established markets but goods did not have to be sold on a particular market days like the case of local trade.
It also involved large volumes of trade as compared to local trade
Examples of regional trade included:
a)  The Trans-Saharan trade
b)  The long-distance trade.
The trans-Saharan trade
‘Trans’ means across. This was therefore the exchange of goods across the Sahara between the peoples of North Africa (Berbers and Tuaregs) and the people of western Sudan (the darkskinned people who occupy the region south of the Sahara)
The West African kingdoms of Mali, Ghana and Songhai were involved in this trade.Development of the trans-Saharan trade. (8th-16thc AD)
Factors that led to the development of the trans-Saharan trade
a)  Demand for West African good such as gold, slaves and kola nuts by the North Africans and for North African goods like horses, cotton cloth and weapons by the west Sudan people.
b)  Existence of rich merchants in the region, such as the Berbers and Tuaregs, who provided capital for investment in the trade/ availability of capital.
c)  Existence of Local trade in the western Sudan belt and among the barbers and Tuaregs provided a base for the regional trade.
d)  Existence of the Tuaregs, who provided security to traders, guided them through the deserts and maintained some water points like the oases where the Berber merchants watered their camels and rested before continuing with their journey to and from western Sudan.
e)  Availability of well established trade routes across the desert which made it easy for the traders to travel.
f)  Existence of Kings in western Sudan like Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhamed of Songhai who provided protection to traders, ensured peace and political stability.
g)  Availability of pack animals like the camel and the horse which enabled easy movement through the desert. The camel could carry heavy loads and travel long distances without water.
h)  Existence of oases which became a source of water during the travels, for the camels and the traders.
i)  Invasion of North Africa by the Arabs and their eventual settlement led to increase in the volume of trade.
j)  There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory. This stimulated the development of trans-Saharan trade.
The trade goods in the trans-Saharan trade
From western Sudan;
a)  Gold- this was by far the most important commodity that originated from the wangara region, Bornu, Upper Senegal and upper Niger.
b)  Slaves- they were forcefully captured and later used as soldiers and labourers in the Arab world.
c)  Kola nuts and feathers. Monopoly of the Hausa traders from Kano region.
d)  Hides and skins- from Hausa land for making leather clothing and shoes.
e)  Ivory- originated from western belt mainly from cote d’ivore.
f)  Gum- from Mauritania and Senegal
g)  Dyed cloth and pepper
From the north
a)  Salt- from Taghaza, Taodeni, Bilma and Ghadames.
b)  Horses- from Tripoli were on demand among the political leaders and their soldiers.
c)  Glassware, beads, mirrors, perfumes, spices, dried fruits, needles, firearms, daggers and cowrie shells.
Organization of the trans-Saharan trade
Beginning of Trans-Saharan Trade was due to the fact that North Africa was rich in the salt that West Africa lacked while West Africa was rich in gold. The Trans-Saharan trade led to an exchange of salt for gold.The trade was between people of the western Sudan and Arabs from North Africa.Because of the long distance involved, the traders had to organize themselves very well. Traders travelled in large caravans of camels and traders to enhance their security.The rich traders from North Africa initiated the trade. They provided trade goods, camels and horses to middlemen who coordinated the trade.
The middlemen would contact desert guides known as takshifs who also acted as desert guards.They protected the traders and guarded the oases in the Sahara .The Tuaregs also provided the traders with security and acted as interpreters.The caravans usually departed from the north after the rainy season when sandstorms would subside for smooth travel. The traders made stops at the oases to refresh themselves and let their camels drink water.
They carried gifts for leaders of the communities along the route to appease them and as reciprocation for security while traveling through their kingdoms. Rulers of western Sudan offered service to the traders while they were in the territory.The trade was conducted in barter/ exchanging one good for another/ silent trade. Some of the caravan traders used agents who sold goods on their behalf in the interim period between their departure back to the north until the time they came back to western Sudan. The rulers of western Sudan controlled trade/regulated amount of gold to be sold . The traders paid taxes to the kings of western Sudan.The main items of trade were gold and salt i.e. from the west came gold, ivory, slaves, ostrich feathers, leather, kola nuts and pepper. From the north came salt, horses, weapons, iron implements, clothes, silk and beads. Arabs and Berbers financed the trade.The traders followed fairly defined route. The most important routes were as follows;
a)  A route Starting at Sijilmasa (an oasis) in Morocco through Taghaza (a desert town with a lot of salt) and ended at Andaghost in western Sudan.
b)  A route starting in Tunis and passing through Ghadames, Ghat, Agades and Gao. Then it passed through Hausaland, Gonja and eventually ended at Yorubaland in modern Nigeria.
c)  A route beginning at Sijilmasa and passing through Timbuktu before proceeding to Gao.
d)  A route beginning at Tripoli passing through Fezzan and eventually ending at Bornu in the Sudan Belt.
Challenges faced by the trans-Saharan traders
a)  There was Communication barrier due to lack of a common language for transactions. This was a challenge during the pioneer years.
b)  Traveling long distances for many months, usually up to three months, across the desert was tedious and stressful.
c)  Traveling under extreme weather conditions; too hot during the day and too cold at night.
d)  Scarcity of water and food during the journeys. The traders suffered serious sickness due to such extreme weather variations.
e)  There were constant Attacks by hostile communities who sometimes robbed them of their merchandize.
f)  Traders were sometimes attacked by insects like scorpions and wild animals.
g)  The traders sometimes suffered from Loss of direction due to the vastness of the desert.
h)  Exposure to frequent sandstorms which killed many traders.
i)  Sometimes wars between kingdoms disrupted trade.
Impact of the trans-Saharan trade
Positive impact;
a)  The trade stimulated the emergence of urban centres along the trade routes. Towns like Taghaza and Timbuktu developed due to the production of trade commodities like salt and gold respectively.
b)  Profits from the trade stimulated the growth of strong empires as the kings levied taxes on the caravan traders. Examples of such empires include Mali, Ghana and Songhai.
c)  Introduction of horses in the western Sudan belt led to strengthening of the state armies as horses were used by the armies to boost security in the region.
d)  A class of wealthy traders emerged in western Sudan. These were mainly the local merchants who interacted with the merchants from North Africa.
e)  The trade stimulated the emergence and growth of smithing technology and industry.
f)  The trade led to the introduction of iron tools in wider areas of western Sudan. This boosted agricultural production in western Sudan and ensured food security in the area.
g)  There was population increase in western Sudan due to increased food production as a result of better farming tools.
h)  It also enhanced contacts between North Africa and the Suda n belt. This facilitated the spread of European goods and ideas between the peoples of the two regions.
i)  The trade facilitated the spread of Islamic religion in the Sudan belt. For example, the Hausa traders were converted to Islam.
j)  There was introduction of the Islamic system of education in the Sudan belt. The
University of Timbuktu for example, teaching mainly Islamic syllabus, was one of the institutions that emerged as a result of the trade.
k)  Sharia law was introduced in the states that accepted Islam in western Sudan.
l)  The trade led to the introduction of the Arabic architectural designs in West Africa.
m)  The Islamic and Arabic culture-language, mode of dressing and eating mannerisms also spread to western Sudan.
n)  The mode of transport in the region was remarkably revolutionized by theintroduction of camels and horses making transport efficient.
Negative impacts:
a)  The trade increased warfare in the region as communities gained access to firearms and horses. Thousands of people lost their lives.
b)  Many people in the western Sudan belt were captured and taken into slavery to meet the demands of the trans-Saharan traders.
c)  The demand for ivory also led to the destruction of wildlife in western Sudan.
Decline of the trans-Saharan trade.
The trade reached its climax at around AD 8th c. by 15th c, the trade had declined due to the following reasons;
a)  Exhaustion of the salt and gold minefields as well as other like ivory. This discouraged traders from coming to West Africa.
b)  Increased political instability in the region due to so many wars of conquest created insecurity to the traders.
c)  The desert conditions e.g. harsh weather, dangerous insects, snakes and robbers discouraged many traders from the activity.
d)  Invasion of the region by the almorarids and the Tuaregs increased insecurity even more along the trade routes. Hence traders discontinued their involvement.
e)  Moroccan invasion of western Sudan in the 16th century undermined the trade.
f)  The growth of the trans-Atlantic trade attracted some of the trans-Saharan traders thus reducing the volume of commodities that were sold.
g)  Colonization of west and North Africa by Europeans who took over the resources hence African activities were undermined.
h)  Invasion of North Africa by the ottoman Turks created insecurity along the caravan routes leading to decline of the trade.
i)  Anti-slave trade pressure from the British and eventual abolition of slave trade reduced trade profits.
j)  The establishment of commercial ports on the western African coast and the use of navigable rivers by the 16th century AD rendered caravan trade unpopular as it was slow, cumbersome and risky.
International trade
This is a type of trade that involves the exchange of goods between different countries in one continent or beyond the continent.
Examples of international trade include
a)  The Indian Ocean trade
b)  The trans-Atlantic trade.
The trans-Atlantic trade
The trans-Atlantic trade involved Europe, Africa and the Americas thus earning it the name Triangular trade. It was also called the trans-Atlantic slave trade because it involved crossing the Atlantic and the main commodity was slaves.The trade was fueled by the technological innovations especially in Spain and Portugal which facilitated sea transport.The trade happened at a time when the Europeans were keen on expanding overseas (15th and 16th c AD) for the following reasons;
a. They were searching for the sea route to India and Far East to get the spices and other commodities. The Turks had blocked the land route.
b.  The Europeans wanted to acquire gold and other precious items that believed to be in
existence in Africa.
c.  The Europeans wanted to revenge against the Muslims who had colonized the Iberian Peninsula between 8th c and 1491 AD.
d.  They were motivated by the desire to spread their civilization to the backward areas of the world.
e.  European countries such as Portugal and Spain also wanted to increase their
geographical knowledge.
Origin of the trans-Atlantic trade
The exact date when the first slave was captured and sold was 1441 AD. Young Portuguese sailor named Ahtam Goncalvez captured a man and a woman on the Western Sahara coast whom he presented to Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese king, thus setting off a chain of reaction in the trade. The Portuguese built a fort on the Arguin Island on the coast of Mauritania in 1445 which was used as a base for buying slaves and Gold. The suppliers of the slaves at the fort were the Moors.The Portuguese ventured into the gold coast in search of gold in 1471. They built a fort at Elmina in 1482.The Portuguese then established trading contacts with the king of Congo who even accepted Christianity and Portuguese culture. (He baptized his son Afonso Bemba Nzinga)
By 1500AD, the Portuguese established sugar plantations in the island of Sao Tome near modern Gambia. They relied on slave labour from Gambia.
Development and organization of trans-Atlantic slaves.
The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable three-legged trading pattern. European manufactured goods, namely cloth and metal wares, especially firearms, went to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves. The slaves were then shipped to the Caribbean and Americas from 1532 AD, where they were sold for cash or sometimes bartered for sugar or molasses. Then the ships returned to Europe loaded with American products.European ports of Bristol, Liverpool and Glasgow in Britain, Bordeaux and Nantes in France, and Amsterdam in Holland were crucial in this trade.
The forts that developed in West Africa due to this trade were Elmina, Lagos, Whydah, Accra, Badagri, Sekondi, Winneba, Goree and Dakar. In the 16th c, the Portuguese emerged as the main suppliers of slaves to Spanish colonies, having been granted special licenses, asientos, by the Spanish monarchy.African slaves were more preferred by Europeans because;
a.  They were available in large numbers.
b.  They were found to be cheaper to use than European labouerers and American Indians.
c.  They were thought to be immune to both European and tropical diseases.
d.  They appeared stronger and therefore suitable for manual labour.
The Dutch were among the first European nations to compete the Portuguese in slave trade.
For example in 1630, they wrestled the Elmina Fort from the Portuguese and captured Luanda in 1641. They were supplying slaves to new sugar plantations in the British Colony of Barbados and the French Caribbean colonies of Martinique of Guadalupe.
The British and the French used merchant companies to conduct the slave trade having been motivated by the fortunes the Dutch were making. e.g, the Royal African Company was granted charter in 1672 and began taking colonies to the British colony in Jamaica.
The original capture of slaves was almost always violent. As European demand grew, African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies. Others launched wars specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves
Factors that facilitated the acquisition of slaves
a. Existence of the institution of slavery in West Africa where the war captives, adulters, witches, the weak, debtors and murderers were enslaved
b. Availability of firearms to precipitate warfare and capture of the conquered as slaves.
c.  Existence of well defined trade routes easily used by the slave merchants to access the
interior slave markets.
d.  The great demand for slaves in the New World (Latin America) and North America.
Ways of obtaining slaves
a)  Selling of domestic slaves in exchange for goods like beads, guns, glass etc
b)  Selling of criminals, debtors and social misfits in society by the local chiefs to the Arab slave traders.
c)  Prisoners of war could be sold off.
d)  Porters were sometimes kidnapped, transported and sold off to the Arab traders.
e)  Raiding villages, this would begin at night with gun shots and people would scatter consequently leading to their capture.
f)  Through inter tribal wars many Africans become destitutes and these would be captured by the slave traders.
g)  Tax offenders were sold off by the African chiefs.
h)  They were also captured through ambushes during hunting, travelling and gardening.
i)  Slaves would be acquired from the main slave trade market in Zanzibar.
j)  Other Africans are also said to have gone voluntarily in anticipation of great wonders and benefits from the new world.Following capture, slaves were force- marched to the coast to holding pens where they were oiled and fed ready for inspection, before being loaded on ships. Prices of slaves depended on sex, age and size.The slaves were bartered for guns, alcohol, gun-powder, cloth and different metals.
Two trading systems were used:
a)  Factory system where political authorities allowed Europeans to establish permanent
coastal baracoons or fortresses where slaves were kept in bulk as they awaited
shipment. This method was only used by chartered companies as t was expensive. It was also only viable in Dahomey where slaves were in large numbers.
b)  Private trading. Sailing with vessels down the coast, and then stopping at different points to purchase slaves until there was enough cargo.The slaves were branded before loading them into the ships ready for the trans-Atlantic journey which was called the “Middle Passage”. The ships were filthy, hot, and crowded. By 1654, some 8,000-10,000 Africans each year were undergoing the Middle Passage. The moment of sailing is described as the most traumatic. Many Africans revolted during the middle passage in a bid to escape. For some jumping overboard was more preferable than their ‘blood being turned into red wine, bones into gunpowder, skins, into black leather shoes and flesh -the Whiteman’s meat’ as they believed.
Factors which led to the development of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
a)  Increased demand for slave labour by European countries led them to West Africa where they were available in large numbers.
Dangers of Middle Passage
Suicide
Disease
The mortality rate averaged between 13 and 33 percent of the slaves and the crew. “If the Atlantic were to dry up it would reveal a scattered pathway of human bones marking the various routes of the Middle Passage.”.
b)  Greater preference for African slaves by the slave traders since they were thought to be more strong and resistant to tropical disease and could cope with stress easily.
c)  West Africa had well defined interior routes which enabled establishment of earlier strong trade links by the Europeans. There were also vast trade goods like gold, palm oil and ivory.
This stimulated the development of trans-Atlantic trade.
d)  African chiefs had developed a taste for European goods like cloths, firearms and glass enabling exchange for slaves, gold ivory and palm oil. There was also existence of the institution of slavery in West African communities.
e)  The introduction of firearms facilitated the capture of slaves and hence their increased supply.
f)  The exploitation of minerals and establishment of plantations in the Americas pushed demand for slaves to higher levels hence trade with the region expanded.
g)  The increased demand for raw materials to feed the growing industries in Europe led to increased demand for slaves in cotton farms in the Americas.
h)  The rivalry between the Portuguese and the Spaniards and with the Britons over the control of slave trade pushed the trade to a higher new level.
i)  The fact the trade was very lucrative led to its further expansion.
j)  Improved technology which meant ability to construct greater capacity ships. Th is enhanced transportation of more slaves from West Africa and thus development of the trade .

Impact of trans-Atlantic trade on the people of West Africa
a)  It caused immense suffering to many people.
b)  It led to forced emigration of about 10 million people to  the Americas between 1500 and 1888.
c)  Many slaves died between capture and arrival to their destinations.
d)  Depopulation occurred in areas where slaves were taken from. This led to underdevelopment since the young and productive people were taken away.
e)  African traditional industries were destroyed by the sale of cheap manufactured goods from Europe.
f)  There was increased conflict between communities especially where the gun was used. This led to destruction of property during the inter-community wars.
g)  Many African communities were weakened and were left unprepared for the scramble and partition of Africa which soon followed.
h)  It led to rise and growth of states e.g. Asante, Dahomey.
i)  It led to founding of Liberia and Sierra Leone as settlements for slaves who were  freed.
j)  It led to changes to social roles; women became the heads of their families due to the enslavement of men.
k)  Some African cultures spread to the Americas e.g Jazz Music and samba dancing styles of Brazil and even witchcraft.
l)  The trade led to the rise of the mullato population. E.g in Senegal, where they are mainly found in Goree and Dakar, as a result of the intermingling between the European traders and the African women.
m)  It contributed to the decline of the trans-Saharan trade and the colonization of West Africa.
Economic impacts of slave trade
a)  It led to introduction of new (manufactured) goods in West Africa which undermined many indigenous technologies like smithing and medicine.
b)  Africa was depleted of her vital manpower that was greatly needed in agriculture and defence. This led to economic retardation.
c)  Destruction of African property during the slave raids.
d)  Led to the eventual decline of the Trans Atlantic trade at its abolition.
e)  Stimulated development of ports in West Africa and in Europe.
f)  African leaders accumulated a lot of wealth e.g Dahomey, jaja, Asantehene.
g)  It led to development of European economies. A number of large cities grew along the coastal ports. For example Glasgow, Bordeaux Liverpool and Nantes.
h)  Growth of industrialization in Europe as the slave labour ensured constant flow of raw materials into the industries.
i)  Some of the slave dealers accumulated enormous wealth. For example, the merchants like Barclays Brothers and sailing companies like Lloyds.
j)  The trade led to the expansion of plantation farming in USA (cotton and sugar plantations) which relied on slave labour.
Decline of the trans-Atlantic slave trade
In 1807, the British government made a decision to abolish slave trade.
Factors that led to the abolition of slave trade;
a)  Rise of humanitarians in Europe such as Christians and scholars condemned it on moral grounds. The missionaries wanted it to be stopped because they wanted good conditions for the spread of Christianity. The formation of the humanitarian movements in Engl and aimed at stopping all kinds of cruelty including slave trade, flogging of soldiers and child labour.
b)  Industrialization in Britain was one of the main forces behind the abolition .E.g. Britain industrialists urged its abolition because they wanted Afri cans to be left in Africa so that Africa can be a source of raw materials for their industries, market for European manufactured goods and a place for new investment of surplus capital.
c)  Formation of Anti-slavery movement and the abolitionist movement in 1787. Its chairman was Granville Sharp and others like Thomas Clarkson, William Wilberforce who gathered facts and stories about the brutality of slave trade and slavery to arouse public opinion in Britain.
d)  The attainment of independence by USA in 1776 left Britain in a dilemma since she had no colonies where she would take the slaves to work.
e)  The French revolution of 1789 and the American revolution of 1776 emphasized liberty, equality and fraternity (brotherhood) of all human beings. As a result, people began to question whether anyone had a right to deprive fellow man of his liberty when he had done wrong.   
f)  The British desire to protect their national interests, British planters wanted slave trade stopped to avoid competition with other European planters .This is because other planters were producing cheaper sugar, British sugar accumulated hence the need to stop over production.  
g)  The closure of the American slave market after the defeat of the South American states in the American civil war of 1865 left the slave dealers with no market for their slaves.
h)  The rise of leading London economists with new ideas e.g. Prof. Adam Smith(challenged the economic arguments which were the basis of slave trade when he argued convincingly that hired labour is cheaper and more productive than slave labour, Rousseau spread the idea of personal liberty and equality of all men.
i)  Influential abolitionists like William Wilberforce (a British member of parliament) urged the British government to legislate against the slave trade in her colonies. They in turn influenced public opinion against slave trade.
j)  The ship owners stopped transporting slaves from Africa and began transporting raw materials directly from Africa and America to Europe, which led to a decline in slave trade.

Definition of Transport
Transport is the movement of people and from one place to another.Transportation is usually classified by the medium in which the movement occurs. For example, land, air and water transport.Transport can be categorized into traditional and modern means.

a)  Traditional means of transport.
The means of transport at this category were land and water evolved.
Land transport
People move on land either by walking or by using other human powered transport. People also use domestic animals as a means of transportation
Human transport
Human powered transportation included carrying goods on their backs, heads and shoulders. Africans were used as porters during the slave trade. Human porterage still goes on in the modern society.
Limitation of human porterage
 Human porterage was cumbersome, slow and tiresome.
 Humans Carry limited amount of goods at particular time.
 It is not convenient over long distances.
Animal transport
Early human beings used the domesticated animals to carry loads on their backs or pull carts. Such animals are referred to as pack animals.In 500 AD a paddled collar was devised that rested on the animals’ shoulders. In 200 AD saddles were introduced in Egypt. Horse shoes were introduced in 700 AD
Donkey\Ass
The first animals to be used as pack animals; they were used in Egypt as early as 3400bc to carry weight upto 80kg. They were commonly used in the trade between Nubia and South Sudan. In Ukambani today, donkeys are used to fetch water.
Oxen
Referred to as draught animals used for ploughing and pulling carts and also transportation of goods and people.
Horses
They were first rode but were later trained to pull wagons, chariots and passenger coaches. In the Roman Empire, they carried soldiers during war. (Soldiers on horseback are referred to as cavalry.
Disadvantages of horses
a)  It is highly susceptible to diseases.
b)  It cannot survive in tsetse fly infected areas.
c)  The weight limit of the load it can carry is 120kg
d)  They are not suitable in arid and semi-arid areas because they need a lot of water.
NB; - horses are mainly reared by the rich as a symbol of high social status.
Mules.A crossbreed of a horse and a donkey, they are sterile and carry loads upto 110kg.they are mostly used in mountainous areas in central and southern Europe and in Mexico.
Camels
It is referred to as the ship of the desert.
What makes a camel ideal in desert transport?
a)  It has a unique ability to survive for long without food and water.
b)  They have an incredible water storage capacity, they do not sweat lose much moisture.
c)  They have broad padded, two toed feet ideal for walking on desert sand.
d)  The nostrils have flaps which keep away sand during sandstorms.
e)  Its fur is thick enough to protect it from the sweltering desert heat by day and ext reme cold conditions at night.
f)  The hump contains a lot of fat which the camel uses when it goes without eating
Camels were commonly used during the trans-Saharan trade. They are in use in Kenya today among the Galla and Somali carrying weight upto 200kg.
Llamas and alpaca.
Members of the camel family found in central and south America. They carry load upto 40 kg.
Elephants
They are used in Asia to carry people and heavy loads upto 250kg. In India, they were used to transport people and goods during war in 2500BC.
In Africa they were used in warfare in 270BC.
Water Buffalo.
A member of the cattle family and the only type of buffalo that has been domesticated. The cape buffalo of Africa and the Pygmy buffalo of Philippines have not been domesticated. It isused to pull ploughs and do other heavy work in India and south East Asia.
Reindeer
A long-horned deer family breed used in the cold parts of Canada, Sweden and Norway for riding and transportation. It also provides milk, meat, hides and horns.
Dogs
Dog types like Bouriers were used to pull small carts and sledges, especially in the Arctic thus making transportation of gods and people easy. Dogs are also used in guiding blind people in sports and as pets at home.

Advantages of animal transport
a)  Pack animals can be used in largely inaccessible areas. The Llama, for example is used in the mountainous areas with narrow and meandering paths and steep cliffs. The camel is well adapted for deserts.
b)  Animals are cheap to maintain. They attract very little maintenance costs, since only feeding costs are incurred.
c)  Pack animals are safe as accidents are rare probably because they do not speed..
d)  Animals help to maintain the ecological balance since they do not interfere with the environment.
e)  Pack animals are capable of sensing danger. For example, horses and dogs can sniff out an enemy from a distance. This enhances security as dangerous confrontations with an enemy can easily be avoided.
Disadvantages of animal transport
a)  Animal transport is slow and tedious. The animals need to feed and drink along the way.
b)  Pack animals may be attacked by wild animals, disease- causing insects such as tsetse-flies and disease.
a. Their movement is limited to the day only and cannot travel at night.
b. They can only carry small loads as compared to vehicles.
c. Some pack animals such as donkey are stubborn when tired and heavily loaded. The camel is only suited for the desert.
d. Pack animals use is limited to short distances as they fatigue when they travel for long.
The wheel
The wheel was invented in sumeria at about 3000bc. By 2500BC, they had invented the spoked wheel used on horse drawn chariots. The chariot was used in Mesopotamia at around 2000BC and later spread to Egypt, Persia, Rome, china, Africa and Europe.
The cart or wagon pulled by humans or animals was the first wheeled vehicle. The wheeled wagons and carts created the need for roads
Today many types of wheels are in use. For example, the steering wheel for cars, turbines for jet engines and gyroscopes used in the automobile pilot technology.
Ways in which invention of the wheel impacted on road transport   
a)  More roads were constructed to use wheel vehicles for transport
b)  Road transport became faster and efficient
c)  Bigger loads could be carried hence was cost effective – profitable
d)  It made the use of motor engine driven vehicles possible
e)  It enabled man to move over long distance to disseminated ideas and interact.
Water transport
Water transport has progressed from early rafts and canoes to the modern large passenger and freight ships.

Rafts
A raft is a simple floating structure, usually made by tying together floating material like animal skin, papyrus stalks or logs. The earliest people to make rafts were the Australians. They made rafts called catamaran by tying logs together. Long poles were then used to drive the raft.Rafts however sank easily and required a lot of manpower upstream. A canoe was a narrow boat that was propelled by one or more paddles. The oldest canoe was made by stripping the bark from trees (bark canoes). Later a new canoe was made from a hollow on a log (dug-out canoe).In Kenya, canoes are used for transporting people and goods and for fishing in inland lakes and rivers.
Oar-driven boats
Boats are small vessels for travelling on water and are powered by oars, sails or motor. The Egyptians pioneered in the building of boats that used oars (a short wooden pole with a flat end) instead of paddles in 3000BC. The Phoenicians, Greeks and the Romans developed oardriven trading vessels and warships.
Sailing ships.
Humankind learned that the wind could move a boat more easily than human beings if the ship had a piece of cloth fixed on poles (sail). The Egyptians used the sailing ships by 3000BC on the Mediterranean and Red seas. The Greeks made sailing ships known as galleys which were used for trade and war. They used war galley known as triremes to defeat the Persians and Phoenicians.Sailing ships were depending on monsoon winds discovered by Hippalus. The Arabs and Persians relied on the monsoon winds to reach the east African coast.The Portuguese invented a three-masted ship called a caravel as the one used by Christopher Columbus and other explorers to sail to America and the Far East. The Carrack used by Vasco da Gama was five-masted to sail to east Africa. Ferdinand Magellan became the first person to sail around the world using a Sailing ship
Fast sailing ships called clippers were made in 1840s in America. It was a long and narrow ship with sharp bows and almost straight sides.However, sailing ships could not sail on windy days and seasons. Some communities however still use sailing ships upto today for sports, fishing and leisure.By the 12th c AD, the magnetic compass was being used in navigation aid
Factors that led to the development of various forms of transport
a)  Technological development during the scientific age which enabled man to invent machines which could be used to manufacture various parts of cars , rails, airplanes, ships and motor boats.
b)  Expansion of geographical knowledge encouraged the development of transport so as to enable man to search new places faster and more safely.
c)  Introduction of specialization as a means of production which necessitated exchange o goods and services which could only be made possible through development of transport and communication.
d)  Population increase hence demands for more food and goods hence the need for essential transport system.
e)  In order to satisfy the desires of man there was need to develop a system of transport that would enable man to get the goods and services he needed so much.